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Major language families
By number of native speakers
This is a list of the top ten families with wide recognition as phylogenetic units, in terms of numbers of native speakers, listed with their core geographic areas.
- Indo-European languages (Europe, Southwest to South Asia, America, Oceania)
- Sino-Tibetan languages (East Asia)
- Niger-Congo languages (Sub-Saharan Africa)
- Afro-Asiatic languages (North Africa to Horn of Africa, Southwest Asia)
- Austronesian languages (Oceania, Madagascar, Southeast Asia)
- Dravidian languages (South Asia)
- Altaic languages (Central Asia)
- Austro-Asiatic languages (Southeast Asia)
- Tai-Kadai languages (Southeast Asia)
- Japonic languages (Japan)
Phyla with wide geographical distributions historically but comparatively few contemporary speakers include Eskimo-Aleut, Na-Dené, Algic, Quechuan and Nilo-Saharan.
By variety
According to the numbers in Ethnologue[1], the largest language families in terms of number of languages are:
- Niger-Congo (1,514 languages)
- Austronesian (1,268 languages)
- Trans-New Guinea (564 languages) (validity disputed)
- Indo-European (449 languages)
- Sino-Tibetan (403 languages)
- Afro-Asiatic (375 languages)
- Nilo-Saharan (204 languages)
- Pama-Nyungan (178 languages)
- Oto-Manguean (174 languages) (number disputed; Lyle Campbell includes only 27)
- Austro-Asiatic (169 languages)
- Sepik-Ramu (100 languages) (validity disputed)
- Tai-Kadai (76 languages)
- Tupi (76 languages)
- Dravidian (73 languages)
- Mayan (69 languages)
Language families
In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known or suspected language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of a few hundred independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are not a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.
Africa and Southwest Asia
- Afro-Asiatic languages (formerly Hamito-Semitic)
- Niger-Congo languages (sometimes Niger-Kordofanian)
- Nilo-Saharan languages
- Khoe languages (part of the Khoisan proposal)
- Tuu languages (part of Khoisan)
- Juu-ǂHoan languages (part of Khoisan)
Europe and North, West and South Asia
- Indo-European languages
- Tyrsenian languages
- Dravidian languages
- Northwest Caucasian languages (often included in North Caucasian)
- Northeast Caucasian languages (often included in North Caucasian)
- Hurro-Urartian languages (extinct, perhaps related to Northeast Caucasian)
- South Caucasian languages
- Turkic languages (part of the Altaic proposal)
- Mongolic languages (part of Altaic)
- Tungusic languages (part of Altaic)
- Uralic languages
- Yukaghir languages
- Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
- Dené-Yeniseian languages
East Asia, Southeast Asia, North East India and the Pacific
- Andamanese languages (perhaps two families)
- Austro-Asiatic languages
- Austronesian languages (part of the Austro-Tai proposal)
- Hmong-Mien languages
- Japonic languages (part of the Altaic proposal)
- Sino-Tibetan languages
- Tai-Kadai languages (part of Austro-Tai)
New Guinea and neighboring islands
- Baining languages
- Border languages
- Central Solomons languages
- East Bird's Head-Sentani languages
- Eastern Trans-Fly languages (one in Australia)
- East Geelvink Bay languages
- Lakes Plain languages (upper Mamberamo River)
- Left May-Kwomtari languages
- Mairasi languages
- Nimboran languages
- North Bougainville languages
- Piawi languages
- Ramu-Lower Sepik languages
- Senagi languages
- Sepik languages
- Skou languages
- South Bougainville languages
- South-Central Papuan languages
- Tor-Kwerba languages
- Torricelli languages
- Trans-New Guinea (the largest family)
- West New Britain languages
- West Papuan languages
- Yuat languages
Australia
- Bunaban languages
- Daly languages
- Limilngan languages
- Djeragan languages
- Nyulnyulan languages
- Wororan languages
- Mirndi languages
- Arnhem Land languages (3 families and 2 isolates)
- Gunwinyguan languages
- Pama-Nyungan languages
North America and Mesoamerica
- Algic languages (incl. Algonquian languages) (29)
- Alsean languages (2)
- Caddoan languages (5)
- Chimakuan languages (2)
- Chinookan languages (3)
- Chumashan languages (6)
- Comecrudan languages (3)
- Coosan languages (2)
- Dené-Yeniseian languages (40 in North America, 1 in Asia)
- Eskimo-Aleut languages (7)
- Iroquoian languages (11)
- Kalapuyan languages (3)
- Keres languages (2)
- Kiowa-Tanoan languages (7)
- Maiduan languages (4)
- Mayan languages (Mesoamerica) (31)
- Mixe-Zoquean languages (Mesoamerica) (19)
- Muskogean languages (6)
- Oto-Manguean languages (Mesoamerica) (27)
- Palaihnihan languages (2)
- Plateau Penutian languages (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan) (4)
- Pomoan languages (7)
- Salishan languages (23)
- Shastan languages (4)
- Siouan languages (16)
- Tequistlatecan languages (Mesoamerica) (3)
- Totonacan languages (Mesoamerica) (2)
- Tsimshian languages (2)
- Utian languages (12)
- Uto-Aztecan languages (North America & Mesoamerica) (31)
- Wakashan languages (6)
- Wintuan languages (4)
- Yokutsan languages (3)
- Yukian languages (2)
- Yuman-Cochimí languages (11)
Central America and South America
- Alacalufan languages (2)
- Arauan languages (8)
- Araucanian languages (2)
- Arawakan languages (South America & Caribbean) (73)
- Arutani-Sape languages (2)
- Aymaran languages (3)
- Barbacoan languages (7)
- Cahuapanan languages (2)
- Carib languages (29)
- Catacaoan languages (0)
- Chapacura-Wanham languages (5)
- Chibchan languages (Central & South America) (22)
- Chimuan languages (0)
- Choco languages (10)
- Chon languages (2)
- Esmerelda-Yaruro (2)
- Guaicuruan languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8)
- Hibito-Cholón (0)
- Hodï (2)
- Ge languages (13)
- Jicaquean languages (Central America)
- Jirajaran languages (0)
- Jivaroan languages (4)
- Katembri-Taruma languages (0)
- Katukinan languages (3)
- Lencan languages (Central America)
- Lule-Vilela languages (1)
- Mascoian languages (5)
- Mashakalian languages
- Matacoan languages (4)
- Misumalpan languages (Central America) (9)
- Mosetenan languages (1)
- Mura languages (1)
- Nambiquaran languages (5)
- Otomakoan languages ? (3)
- Paezan languages (1)
- Pano-Tacanan languages (36)
- Peba-Yaguan languages (2)
- Puinavean languages (Maku) (9)
- Quechuan languages (46)
- Salivan languages (2)
- Tequiraca-Canichana (2)
- Tucanoan languages (25)
- Tupi languages (70)
- Uru-Chipaya languages (2)
- Witotoan languages (6)
- Xincan languages (Central America)
- Yabutian languages (2)
- Yanomam languages (4)
- Zamucoan languages (2)
- Zaparoan languages (7)
Language isolates
Central & South America
- Abishira
- Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia)
- Andoque (Colombia, Peru)
- Betoi (Colombia)
- Camsá (Colombia)
- Candoshi-Shapra (Peru)
- Cayubaba (Bolivia)
- Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
- Fulniô
- Guató (Brazil, Bolivia)
- Huaorani (a.k.a. Sabela, Waorani, Waodani) (Ecuador, Peru)
- Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
- Itonama (Bolivia)
- Kapixaná (Brazil)
- Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia)
- Kukurá
- Leco (Bolivia)
- Mapudungun (Chile, Argentina)
- Movima (Bolivia)
- Omurano (Peru)
- Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) [extinct]
- Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco)
- Puelche (Argentina,Chile)
- Puquina (Bolivia) [extinct]
- Taushiro (Peru)
- Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil)
- Timote
- Tiníwa
- Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)
- Yámana (a.k.a Yagan) (Chile)
- Yuracare (Bolivia)
- Yuri (Colombia, Brazil)
- Yurumanguí (Colombia)
North America
- Chimariko (US: California)
- Chitimacha (US: Louisiana)
- Coahuilteco (US: Texas, northeast Mexico)
- Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) [extinct]
- Esselen (US: California)
- Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)
- Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca)
- Karankawa (US: Texas) [extinct]
- Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) (US: California)
- Kootenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)
- Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana) (sometimes linked to Muskogean)
- P'urhépecha (a.k.a. Tarascan) (Mexico: Michoacán)
- Salinan (US: California)
- Seri (Mexico: Sonora)
- Siuslaw (US: Oregon)
- Takelma (US: Oregon)
- Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia)
- Tonkawa (US: Texas) [extinct]
- Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)
- Washo (US: California, Nevada)
- Yana (US: California)
- Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma)
- Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)
Australia
- Enindhilyagwa (AKA Andilyaugwa, Anindilyakwa)
- Laragiya
- Minkin [extinct; perhaps a member of Yiwaidjan or Tankic]
- Ngurmbur (perhaps a member of Macro-Pama-Nyungan)
- Tiwi (Melville and Bathurst Islands)
New Guinea
- Abinomn (Baso, Foia) (north Irian)
- Anêm (New Britain)
- Ata (Pele-Ata, Wasi) (New Britain)
- Busa (Sandaun)
- Isirawa (north Irian)
- Kol (New Britain)
- Kuot (Panaras) (New Ireland)
- Massep
- Kwotari-Baibai (a.k.a. Pyu)
- Sulka (New Britain)
- Taiap (Gapun) (Sepik)
- Yalë (Nagatman) (Sandaun)
- Yawa (Geelvink Bay)
- Yélî Dnye (Yele) (Rennell Island)
- Yuri (Karkar) (Sandaun)
Asia
- Ainu language or languages (Japan, Russia) (like Arabic or Japanese, the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity)
- Nivkh or Gilyak (Russia) (sometimes linked to Chukchi-Kamchatkan)
- Korean (North & South Korea, China, USA) (sometimes linked to Altaic; its dialect Jeju is often considered a different language)
- Kusunda (Nepal)
- Kalto or Nihali (India) (sometimes linked to Munda)
- Burushaski (Pakistan, India) (sometimes linked to Yeniseian)
- Elamite (Iran) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Dravidian)
- Sumerian (Iraq) [extinct]
- Hattic (Turkey) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Northwest Caucasian)
- Shompen (Nicobar Island) (little known; appears to be two languages)
Africa
Europe
- Basque (Spain, France) (related to extinct Aquitanian)
Unclassified languages
Languages are considered unclassified either because, for one reason or another, little effort has been made to compare them with other languages, or, more commonly, because they are too poorly documented to permit reliable classification. Most such languages are extinct and most likely will never be known well enough to classify.
Europe
- Iberian (Spain) [extinct]
- Tartessian (Spain, Portugal) [extinct]
Africa
Asia
Australia
- Tasmanian languages [extinct]
South America
- Baenan (Brazil) [extinct]
- Culle (Peru) [extinct]
- Kunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) [extinct]
- Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) [extinct]
- Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) [extinct]
- Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) [extinct]
- Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso) [extinct]
- Malibu languages (Colombia) [extinct]
- Munichi (Peru)
- Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) [extinct]
- Sechura
- Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)
- Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) [extinct]
- Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) [extinct]
- Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) [extinct]
- Yurumanguí (Colombia) [extinct]
North America
- Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas) [extinct]
- Alagüilac (Guatemala)
- Aranama-Tamique (US: Texas) [extinct]
- Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas) [extinct]
- Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland) [extinct]
- Calusa (US: Florida) [extinct]
- Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington) [extinct]
- Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) [extinct]
- Maratino (northeastern Mexico) [extinct]
- Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas) [extinct]
- Quinigua (northeast Mexico) [extinct]
- Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) [extinct]
Mixed languages
- Michif, a mixture of French and Cree, where the nouns and adjectives tend to be French (including agreement), and the polysynthetic verbs are entirely Cree. There are two simultaneous gender systems, French masculine/feminine as well as Cree animate/inanimate, and the Cree obviative (fourth person).
- Mednyj Aleut, a mixture of Russian and Aleut, which retains Aleut verbs but has replaced most of the inflectional endings with their Russian equivalents.
- Cappadocian Greek, comprising mostly Greek root words, but with many Turkish grammatical endings and Turkish vowel harmony, and no gender.
- Mbugu or Ma’a: an inherited Cushitic vocabulary with a borrowed Bantu inflectional system.
Possible examples include:
- Chiac, a mixture of Acadian French language and English language
- Wutunhua (a mixture of Chinese and Tibetan).
- Yeniche (a mixture of German, Yiddish, and Romani).
- Jopará, mixture of Guaraní and Spanish, Spanish verbs are changed to match Guaraní phonology and conjugated following Guaraní patterns.
Creoles
Like mixed languages, the world's numerous creoles do not fit easily into language families.
Sign languages
- See also: List of sign languages
The family relationships of sign languages are not well established, and many are isolates (cf. Wittmann 1991).
Proposed language stocks
- Alarodian
- Almosan (= Sapir's Algonkin-Wakashan)
- Almosan-Keresiouan
- Algonkian-Gulf Algonquin, Algonkin
- Amerind
- Andean
- Aztec-Tanoan
- Austric
- Chibchan-Paezan
- Coahuiltecan
- Dene-Caucasian
- Equatorial
- Eurasiatic
- Gulf
- Hokan
- Hokan-Siouan
- Ibero-Caucasian
- Indo-Pacific
- Keresiouan
- Kongo-Saharan
- Macro-Carib
- Macro-Ge
- Macro-Khoisan
- Macro-Mayan
- Macro-Panoan
- Macro-Siouan
- Macro-Tucanoan
- Mosan
- Na-Dene (Sapir's)
- Nostratic
- Nostratic-Amerind
- Penutian
- Pontic
- Thai-Kadai
- Proto-World
- Quechumaran
- Ural-Altaic
- Uralo-Siberian languages
- Wappo-Yukian
See also
- Language family
- Language families (Ethnologue)
- Auxiliary language
- Constructed language
- Endangered language
- Extinct language
- List of language families by percentage of speakers in mankind
External links
Bibliography
- Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
- Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). The Languages of Africa (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Ross, Malcom. (2005). Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages. In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples [2]
- Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). A guide to the world's languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
- Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. New York: Elsevier.
- Wittmann, Henri (1991). "Classification linguistique des langues signées non vocalement." Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée 10:1.215-88.[3]
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